BACKHOE LOADER (1953)

Bamford invents a powerful, versatile piece of construction equipment.
  

The backhoe loader, or JCB was invented by Joseph Cyril Bamford(1916-2001)of Staffordshire, England. In 1945, using only scrap metal, war surplus jeep axles, and cheap welding kit, he produced an hydraulically operated tipping trailer that he later sold for 45 euro ($180 at the time). With the dump truck like tipping trailer crated, Bamford's business grew steadily as he designed and build new machines using hydraulic power. When the backhoe loader was created in 1953, the JCB logo used for the first time, based on its inventor's initials

J.C.Bamford excavators limited universally known as JCB is the multinational corporation which is the world’s third largest construction manufacturing equipment. the machine cost about Rs 20 Lakh

Typical backhoe loader are made up of three component namely a loader, a tractor and  a backhoe the tractor enables the backhoe loader to traverse difficult terrains of all sorts. At the front of tractor, the loader can scoop, smooth and push great quantities of material.

Meanwhile, the back of the tractor sports a backhoe, which is a large maneuver able arm with a deep bucket. The backhoe can dig up material above or below the tractor, lift heavy loads, and in the wrong hand cause serious structural damage. The backhoe and the loader are controlled and powered by complex system of bidirectional hydraulic rams. A diesel engine pumps oil into the backhoe loader's various hydraulic rams to move backhoe and the loader appendages.

JCB Began painting their construction machinery its distinctive yellow and black color in 1951 .the sporty yellow and black backhoe loader is now among the most popular pieces of construction equipment in the world. Since its inception, more than 325,000 JCB backhoe loaders have been sold worldwide

ATOMIC CLOCK(1949)

THE RACE FOE THE PERFECT TIMEKEEPER BEGINS.

         Build by the British in 1955, this atomic clock depends on the vibration of Caesium exposed to radio waves                      
Most type of clocks rely on the oscillation of a solid body, be it a pendulum, balance wheel, or a quartz crystal, but each suffers from the effect of pressure, temperature and gravity . Atom however, vibrates a fixed number of times per second. Both the U.S. national bureau of standard and United Kingdom’s national physic laboratory tried to take advantage of these vibrations. Time measuring devices have also depended on the spin of the Earth, but these suffer from seasonal effect tidal friction.

Sometimes a clock updated by radio signal is called atomic clock which is used in ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum of atoms, electron transition of microwave, optical. The atomic clock is works on the principle of atomic physic; it uses the microwave signal that electron in atoms emit when they change energy level. The accuracy of atomic clock depends on two factors namely temperature

In 1949, the American Build a quartz clock that was synchronized by the 24 GHz vibration of low pressure gaseous ammonium molecule. The British , under the leadership of physicist Louis Essen (1908-1997), used the oscillation of an electric circuit synchronized to the vibration of caesium atoms the first caesium clock begin build in 1955. The Caesium was kept in a tune able microwave cavity and the relied on the fact that there were 9,192,631,770 transitions between two hyperfine ground- state energy levels every second. This number defined the second, as opposed to the old definition of their being 86,400 second in one day. The good atomic clock accurate to one part in 1,014 and therefore would take about 3 million years to lose or gain a second

Four atomic clocks are used in each of the many satellite of the global positioning system and comparisons of electromagnetic wave travel times enable position on the earth to be measured precisely. The clocks are also used by geophysicist to monitor variation in the spin rate earth and the drifting of the continent. 

HOLOGRAPHY(1948)

GABOR CREATES THE THREE DIMENSIONAL IMAGES

Holography, coming from Greek word Holos(whole) and Grage(writing), is a form of photography that allow an image to be record in 3D which is discovered by Hungarian born Dennis Gabor (1900-976) while working for the Thomas Houston company in rugby, England ,its early development was hampered by insufficient light sources.

Gabor’s holography stored 3D images by encoding them within a beam of light, but the mercury arc lamp is used produced variable results .the invention of the laser by a team of Russian and U.S. scientist in 1960 provide pure, intense light that was ideal for creating holograph. The pulse ruby laser emits a very powerful burst of light that lasts a few nanoseconds and effectively freezes movement.

The development of the laser enabled the first experiment in optically storing and retrieving images. The first laser transmission hologram of 3D object, a toy train and the bird, occurred in 1962 .Stephen A. Benton invented white light transmission holograph in 1968, and this form finally enabled mass production Benton technique meant that, when viewed in ordinary “rainbow” image from the seven colors that make up white light

The use of holography in every form is widespread rainbow holograms are used on credit cards, artist such as Salvador Dali employed holography artistically, and holograms also appeared in some of the movies that defined the latter half of the twentieth century.

Holography works on the principle of interference. The holograms capture the interference pattern between two or more beam of coherent light it is used to test different material used in construction. Holographic films are, flexible plastic films which have been micro embossed with a holographic images pattern

STEM CELL THERAPY (1998)

‌THOMAS AND COLLEAGUE ADVANCE A REVOLUTIONARY MEDICAL THERAPHY

Stem cell therapy is the treatment of various disorder by using stem cells it is use to potentially treat more than 80 disorder, including degenerative and neuromuscular disorder hematopoietic disorder like storage disorder, leukemia affect the bone marrow and it is overcome by stem cell from Donor are known to reconstitute the defective bone marrow.

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Stem cells are cells that have the ability to differentiate into a diverse range of cell types, creating the potential for the cell to be used to grow replacement tissues. American development biologist James Thomson from the University of Wisconsin School of medicine, won the race to isolate and culture human embryonic stem cells. On November 6, 1998 the journal science published the results of Thomas's research, describing how he used embryos from clinics (donated by couple who no longer needed them), and developed way to extract stem cell and keep them reproducing indefinitely

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With the ability  to develop into any one of the 220 cells types in the body, stem cell hold great promise for treating a host of debilitating illnesses, including diabetes, leukemia, Parkinson's diseases, and spinal cord injury. They also provide scientists with models of human disease and new way of testing drugs more effectively in human organisms .but for all the hopes invested, progress has been slow .it has not helped that the stem cell research has been steeped in controversy, with different group questioning the ethics of harvesting stem cell from human embryos.

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In 2007 Thomas and Shinya Yamanaka, from Kyoto University, Japan, both groups used just four genes to reprogram human skin cells. Their work is being heralded as an opportunity to overcome problem including the storage of human embryonic stem cell and restriction on U.S. Federal funding for research

‌since 1988, therapy using stem cell, including those from bone marrow and umbilical cords has been successfully used to treat a number of life threatening diseases. It become one of the most exciting area of medicine and in field of medical science

                                                                                            

CABLE TELEVISION(1948)

WALSON INVENTS THE COMMUNITY ANTENNA TELEVISION SYSTEM

                              When cable television arrived in 1948, television sets were still 

                                             expensive;this one incorporates a radio

Nothing brings a community together like the collective glow of its television .in spring of 1948, American john Walson (1914-1993) installed community antenna television, bringing the wonders of the cable television to his customer. During the 1950s television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion

Cable television originated in U.S. simultaneously in Oregon , Pennsylvania  and in Arkansas in 1948 to enhance the reception of over the air television signals in mountainous or geographically remote areas   

Walson and his wife Margaret, owners of the services electric company of Mahanoy city, Pennsylvania, came up with cable television as a way to help their customers pick up signals blocked by nearby mountains. Walson decided to take his service literally to new heights by climbing to the top of a mountain and planning an antenna. Using cable and signal boosters, he connected the antenna to his appliance store. Along the way he dropped the signal directly off at his customer’s home, thus creating the first community antenna television system

Community antenna television, now knows as cable Tv is found 60 percent of U.S. homes and throughout Europe. The first cable system consisted of a large antenna to capture the signal amplifiers arranged throughout the service area. As the signal moved along the cable it weakened forcing the designers to implement amplifiers at regular intervals, but amplification added noise and distortion to the signal and created a potential place for the signal to be completely lost.

Soon thereafter, cable was fortified as more and more channels were added. Microwave transmitters and receivers were used to capture distant signals, giving cable provide more channel choice. The wave for sofa bound channel surfers was the fast approaching tidal proportions.

After the Word War II in united states an improved from of black to white TV broadcasting become popular and Britain , and television sets became common place in institution ,homes , business .

     

ELECTRONIC SYNTHESIZER(1945)

LE CAINE PIONEERS ELECTRONIC MUSIC.

                           

                           Le Caine mounted his prototype electronic Sackbut of 1948 

                                       on crude three legged wooden stand

Music synthesizer is also called electronic sound synthesizer is a machine that electronically modifies and generate sound, with the uses of a computer 

It is hard to imagine how popular music might have evolved without the use of the synthesizer and other such electronic innovations. Although Dr. Robert Moog is a household name for his pioneering efforts in this field, important ground work was done several decades earlier by a Canadian physicist and instrument designer named huge le Caine(1914-977). One of his instruments in particular, the electronics Sackbut, is now widely recognized as being the first controlled synthesizer.

The commercial Moog recording was made by Wendy Carlos in the year of 1968, record switched on Bach, one of the highest selling classical musical recording

 Developed at the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1945, le Caine’s Sackbut featured a piano type keyboard build into an old desk. Until most of the early commercial synthesizer the appeared at the start of the 1970, Le Caine’s instrumental was touch sensitive; the characteristics of the sound altered according to how lightly or forcefully the keyboard was played, giving the Sackbut much the same potential expressiveness as a real acoustic instrument

Two other particularly innovative designs featured also stand out: the use of adjustable wave form to create basic sound, and the use of voltage control to alter certain characteristic of the sound, such as pitch and modulation. Sound quality was also altered electronically by manipulating special filters. Voltage control would be used on most subsequent synthesizer produced until the early 1980s.

Le Caine would revisit the Sackbut in 1971, but although he intended to produce a commercial instrument, the project failed. Despite his public obscurity, Huge le Caine’s instrument had a great deal of influence on the world of electronic music

 It is used in live performance and composition of electronic music

TRANSISTOR(1947)

BARDEEN, SHOCKLEY AND BRATTAIN REPLACE THE PROBLEMATIC VALVE TRIODE.

                                   Metal contacts are separately by an insulator pressing onto                                                                             germanium. itself supported by a metal plate                    

The development of the transistor was one of the true landmark inventions of the twentieth century, before their existence, almost all electronic circuits made use of cumbersome and unreliable valves, because the controlled output is higher than controlled input a transistor can amplify a signals .

The transistor was developed in the United States at the bell telephone laboratories in New Jersey. Scientist john Bardeen (1908-1991), William Shockley (1910-1989), and Walter Brattain (1902-1987) were researching the behavior and suitability of germanium crystals for use as semiconductor that could replace valves diodes. When this was successfully achieved, the same group turned their attention to the considerably more demanding task of creating a solid state germanium triode one that could replace the ubiquitous valve equivalents .since its development and evolution during the early years of twentieth century, the valve triode had been at very high heart of every piece of electronic equipment .however , valves consumed large amount of power, created a sometime unacceptable level of heat, and like the electric light bulb from which they evolved, they had a short lifespan.

On December 16, 1947 Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain created the first transistor so named from” tans” of transmitter and “Sistor’ from resistor. A week later they gave their first public demonstration: December 23, 1947, is usually cited as birthday of the transistor. The transistor was tiny, consumed very little power, and gave off no heat whatsoever. It was also supremely predictable in its behavior. Within a decade, valve technology In most commercial application was rendered all but obsolete.

It is used to regulate the current and or voltage flow and act as gate or switch for electronic signals. usually it consist of three layer of semiconductor each capable for carrying the current. It is the basic element in integrated circuit

“Brattain decided to try dunking the entire apparatus into a tub of water apparatus into a tub of water. It worked …a little bit”     

                                      

POLAROID SELF DEVELOPING FILM CAMERA(1947)

LAND INTRODUCE THE PHOTOGRAPHY THAT DEVELOPED INSTANTLY

The “Polaroid” camera became an instant classic following its conception, ore that sixty years ago. Although the technology behind self developing film was already present at the time, it was Edwin land (1909-1991), founder of the Polaroid Corporation, who designed and produced the first commercially available self developing camera in 1946, an invention that won its creator many accolades. Polaroid camera is also known as Polaroid land camera, Polaroid print.

Land formed his company in 1937 to produce and sell the polarizing filters he had patented eight years before, and soon the company was making filters for the United States in the world war II .land was on vacation with his daughter in 1943 when, after snapping a photo of her, she asked why she had to wait so long to see the images .he soon visualized a system of “one step dry photography”, whereby the images would develop within sixty seconds inside the camera.

In the year following world war II, when demand foe polarizing filters sagged, land turned his finished invention at the optical Society of America in 1947 by taking a photo of himself and revealing it to the audience after just a minute. The first of land’s camera, the model 95 become available in November the next years, and was an instant sellout.

Polaroid continued to produce redesigned cameras and film including the release of an x ray film for radiography in 1951 right up until February 2008, when the company stopped producing all instant film after falling sales due to the advent of digital cameras. It seems that once revolutionary photographic invention had had its day. Polaroid camera is used widely in optical and lighting device to reduce glare

“(It was on the day ) I suddenly knew how to make a one step dry photographic process”

                                                                                                                                         -Edwin land

WEATHER RADAR(1948)

Ex-world war II radar is directed towards weather system

 The combatant nation if World War II developed radar to detect enemy airplanes. They also noticed that they were picking up signals from raindrops, hailstone, and snowflakes. After the War these signals were used for weather Forecasting. From 1948 weather radar was carried on aircraft to help the crew detect potentially hazardous Cumulonimbus cloud system. Next generation radar which is also known as NEXRAD is an network of 159 high resolution Doppler weather radar operate by national weather service

Weather radar Station Transmit a directional, narrow beam of pulsed microwaves up towards the cloud, using the antenna that rotates and scans the sky. These microwaves typically have wavelength of 1-10 cm , these length being about ten times the size of the raindrops ,snowflakes , hailstone they are aiming to detect .the falling particle scatter the microwaves and a returns pulse is then picked up back at the radar station

Five things are measured. The time taken for the pulse to travel to and from scattering body gives the distance to precipitation the Doppler shift of the return pulse gives the direction and speed in which the cloud is moving .variability in the Doppler signals can indicate the turbulence of the rain drops and thus gives clues as to whether thunderstorm or even tornadoes might develop. The strength of the return pulse is function of the amounts of rain in the specific cloud and the shape of the return pulse distinguishes between Snow Hail, rain. To get a complete 3D moving weather picture, together with cloud height, requires an interlinked series of weather radar dotted over the land .meteorological weather radar usually provide complete radar rain picture every half hour.

Doppler was invented by Christian Johann Doppler, a physicist, from Austria in 1842 he studied at Vienna and became professor of physics .he worked out his idea using sound waves

TELEVISION REMOTE(1950)

ZENITH RADIO CORPORATION ELIMINATES EXERTION FROM TELIVATION VIEWING

By The 1950, television set was begin to establish itself as a firm feature of the family living room and viewers soon grew tired of constantly having to leave the comfort of their favorite armchair to change the channel

The remote control circuit works on the basic of infrared light in the invisible portion of electromagnetic spectrum. In infrared remote control (the transmitter) sends out pulses of infrared light that Represent a specific binary code. These binary codes corresponds to command, such as volume up down and power on/off

One of the first incarnations of the remote control was the 1948 Garod “Telezoom.” This small, round, single button remote was connected to the television by a wire, but its only function was to enlarge the picture on the screen. Thus it was zenith Radio Corporation (Now zenith Electronics Corporation) that pioneered the modern remote control. The founder president, Eugene F.McDonald, Jr., was worried that advertisement would kill television and so challenged to invent something that would “tune out annoying commercial.” In 1950 the rather aptly named “lazy bones” was born. The remote control activated a motor in the television set that operate the tuner .however the device was still connected to television via a cable.aaa

Five years later zenith engineer Eugene Polley came up with the “Flashmatic,” which used the beam of light rather like a flash light to change the channel ,cut off the sound and, and activate the television. Unfortunately the light sensor in the television were so sensitive that a beam of sunlight could turn on or off randomly.

In 1956, zenith’s Dr. Robert Adler suggested using ultrasonic (high frequency sound) and the” zenith space command “went into production. This model set the technological trend until the 1980s, when newly developed infrared technology arrived

NUCLEAR REACTOR (1951)

ZINN USES NUCLEAR FISSION TO MAKE ELECTRICITY 

The heat generate from the reaction was used to turn water into steam, turning turbine to generate electricity .on its first successful run the reactor produced enough power to run just for light bulbs .The next day it produce enough to power the entire search facility, and today nuclear power station, many of them based on original design, provide some 16 percent of the world’s electricity

Nuclear energy is made when nuclear power is derived from the relatively large atom are split in series of controlled nuclear reaction .the resulting heat is used to drive the turbine to generate electricity .the process of splitting an atom is called nuclear fission   

Harnessing the power of the atom has been a major goal of both science and science fiction, capturing the public imagination with the promise of cheap, clean energy. The initial idea was developed until December 20, 1951, when a switch was flicked and the experimental breeder reactor 1 (EBR1) was switched on, becoming the first nuclear reactor to generate electrical energy, and therefore become the first nuclear power plant.

Walter Zinn(1906-2000), the chief scientist behind the work, started his career I nuclear engineering in 1939. Just three years later, in 1942 he became the first to produce a self sustaining nuclear reaction as a part of manhattan project. Which was developing the nuclear bomb .after the World War II ended in 1945 the atomic energy commission (AEC) assigned resource to research peaceful use of the power of the atom, and develop nuclear power for electricity generation

The reactor EBR1 ran until 1963, continuing research into nuclear energy. Zinn himself continued to refine the reactor design. His boiling water reactor, among many of his later design in the field, became the prototype for commercial nuclear power plant  

AIRBAGS(1952)

Hetrick’s invention saves lives in automobile accident

The heating element ignites a chemical explosive. As the explosive burns, it generates a massive amount of harmless gas that floods into a nylon bag packed behind the steering wheel .The gas may be either nitrogen or argon. . Older air bag used sodium azide as their explosive, newer ones use different chemicals. it work by an air bag sensor (Ex: crash sensor) which is responsible for detecting sudden deceleration in a collision. It sends a signal to the airbag computer which uses the vehicle speed, seat belt, yaw and ECU to determine if an airbag should deploy in a crash. The two types of mechanical sensor, the cam type and tube style and ball.

One day in 1952, john W. Hetrick was driving, with his wife and daughter in the front seat, when he had to swerve and brake quickly to avoid the obstacle. Instinctively, he and his wife put their arm out to shield their daughter in case of crash. This inspired him to provide automobile with airbag to protect people during accident. he had been an engineer in the United States, navy during world war II, and he recalled a compressed air torpedo accidently turning itself on, causing its canvas cover to shoot “up into the air, quicker than you could blink an eye”. In 1952 hetrick proposed using compressed air to inflate air bags during car crashes. He received patent for his invention in 1953, but car manufacture in 1950s.

The three main components in airbags are bag itself, a sensor for measuring the severity of the crash, and gas to inflate the bag in a severe. Although air bags have saved thousands of lives, they are not sufficient to prevent death and injury during crashes  

Ford’s president Donald Petersen shows an air bag to U.S. Transportation secretary Elizabeth dole in 1983

                                    

3D COMPUTER GRAPHICS(1976)

CATMULL CREATES THE FIRST 3D COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGES IN MOVIES 

    In 3D computer graphics or 3D modeling or three-dimensional modeling is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions by using special software. The object may be either living or inanimate. The product is called models. Models may be created manually or automatically. The idea of 3d modeling is making the image, just like painting that tricks the brain it is looking at something with 3D rather than 2D. One can do this by considering the effects of lighting on the object, perspective, texture, as well as depth and many more qualities, which the computer then has to project on a 2D surface in a realistic way Graphics are visual presentations on a surface, such as a computer screen. Examples are drawing, photograph, graphics designs, engineering drawings, map or other images. Graphics often combine text and illustration.

   The advance computer graphics started in the year of 1960 with IBM 2250, the first commercially available graphics terminal hitting the market on 1965. After three years Ivan Sutherland created the first computer controlled (HMD) head mounted display. This helmet was able to see a computer in stereoscopic three dimensions, because separate image were displayed for each eye. In computer modeling the most popular primitive is the Triangle. In order to render a character on a screen, the vertices making up the triangle are sent to the Graphics Processing Unit also known as GPU. In the GPU, these vertices go through several coordinate transformations testing.

  Ivan then joined what was then world’s leading research center for computer graphics at the university of Utah .Edwin Catmull one of his student who conceived of texture mapping, based on the fact that the majority of real life object have detailed surface we can apply similar patterns to computer generated items by taking a flat 2 dimension image of an object’s surface and placing it onto 3 dimension computer generated object. Using this technique he created the animated version of his hand

The world’s first computer animation in movies in the Canadians short film the hunger from 1974 an animated face as well as Catmull’s hand became the first three dimension computer generated images

  

35-mm CAMERA

BARNACK USHERS IN THE AGE OF PHOTOJOURNALISMS WITH A HIGH RESPONSIVE CAMERA

     World war I put a halt to Barnack’s progress, and it was not until 1925 that leica 1 camera was introduced (the name standing for Leitz camera). According to one historian, old school photographers regarded the new camera as toy like, but over the next seven years almost 60,000 of them were sold.

  Not everyone has their own award name after them. The Oskar Barnack award, given annually to photo journalists, was initiated in 1979 to mark the hundredth anniversary of the birth of the man who invented the 35-mm still camera. Barnack (1879-1936) had the idea for it back in 1905, but it was not until 1913-1914, while he was working as a head development at the German camera company Leitz, in Wetzlar, Hesse, that he was able to transform his idea into reality

  

  Tradition heavy plate cameras were cumbersome to use and required significant preparation before each shot. It was impossible to take a “quick snap” of anything. Barnack’s camera was a tough metal box that could fit in a jacket packet and used a new kind of film, adaptor from Thomas Edison’s 35-mm cine film. In 1914 Barnack took picture of the Soldiers who had just put up the imperial order for mobilization. This was new kind of picture spontaneous and capturing a new camera film and stretched his arms out. The length of the film between his arms contained thirty six frames, and this has been the number of negatives on a standards 35-mm roll of film ever since.

The first commercial available 35-mm camera was the Leica I, manufactured by Leitz of Germany in 1925.

This 1937 advertisement shows the model of the Leica III series, which include an integrated rangefinder.

GLIDER(1804)

CAYLEY BOOSTS THE QUEST FOR A FLYIMG MECHAIN

     A sailplane or glider is a type of aircraft used in the sport of gliding. gliders are aerodynamically streamlined and are capable of gaining altitude when flown in rising air.

     The originality of Cayley design lay in abandoning flapping as a mean of propulsion. It had previously been assumed that a human would fly like a bird. But Cayley, having defined flight in terms of lift, drag, and thrust, confined the wing to providing lift. But having given up flapping, Cayley lacked an alternative power source to provide thrust. He later built the Glider, which, in 1853, led to the first sustained manned glider flight .power flight, however, had to wait another half century for the people engine and the Wright brothers.

      
      Born into a wealthy family in Yorkshire northern England, George Cayley(1773-1857) was a prolific inventor with an interest in human flight. He devised a heavier than air flying machine, with a wing to provide lift a fuselage in which a pilot could sit, and a cruciform tail for balance and control. In 1804 he built a glider based on this design, with a kite for a wing and a pole some 5 feet (1.5 m) long as the fuselage .this seem to have flow down slopes unmanned, with varying weights of ballast on board, although Cayley recorded that in later experiment with similar but large gliders man running into “a gentle breeze” had found himself lifted off the ground “several yards”.

    
     The reconstruction of the man carrying glider Cayley flew in 1853 was built in 1973 by Anglia TV in England         

ATOMIC BOMB (1945)

SCIENTISTS OF THE MANHATTAN PROJECT COMPLETE THE BOMB DESTINED TO THE END OF WORLD WAR II

     An atomic bomb initiates a nuclear chain reaction ,there by releasing truly vast amounts of energy .an initial problem was production of enough “enriched” uranium to sustain such a reaction .instrumental in the solution was Italian physicist Enrico Fermi in a former squash court under Chicago university , he had other scientists created first ever controlled , self sustaining nuclear chain reaction .the ultimately created  the first, man made nuclear explosion , which Oppenheimer called “trinity”, at Alamagordo  ,New Mexico , on July 16,1945

     During the world war II the United sates used the unprecedented $2 billion to feed an ultra secret research and development program, the outcome of which would alter the relationship of nation forever .know as the Manhattan project, it was the search by the united states and her closet allies to create a Practical atomic bomb: a single device capable of mass destruction enough to end the war

   
    The motivation was simple. The scientist escaping the Nazi regime had revealed the researching   Germany had confirmed the theoretical viability of atomic bomb. 1939, in support of their fears that Nazis might now be developing such a weapon ,Albert Einstein and other wrote the letter to president Franklin D Roosevelt (FDR) warning of the need for atomic research. By 1941 FDR had authorized formal coordinated scientific research into such a device .among those whose effort would ultimately unleash the power of the atom was Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967). Who was appointed the project’s scientific director in 1942.under his direction the famous laboratories at Los Alamos would be constructed and the scientific team assembled.

AIR CONDITIONING (1902)

CARRIER MAKES THE WORLD A MUCH COOLER COOLER PLACE TO LIVE

  

      Willis carrier (1876-1950) of buffalo, New York, developed the fundamental scientific theories of air conditioning. His first system was designed for use in a printing plant. Change in the temperature and the humidity of the plant were causing the ink nozzles to be out of line, which made color printing problematic. Carrier was assigned with the task of fixing this problem .his early system, which made use of spraying nozzles to cool and rather dangerous the air, was large, extremely expensive, and rather dangerous because it relied on the use of ammonia as a coolant. For a year, his machines were just used to cool machine, but when the potential to cool people spotted, they began to be installed in other commercial building, began such as offices, hostel, and hospital. He even went on to the place units in the United States senate and the white house air conditioning has made life more comfortable and led to greater economic activity in the summer months. It can also reduce death rates from heat related illness by up to 40 percent.

               
       Carrier refined his design Andin 1922 installed a system at a Los Angeles theater where conditioned air was fed in from the ceiling and exhausted at floor level. The carrier corporation continues to make and install air conditioning system all over the world.

      The ancient Romans tried to keep their buildings cool during hot weather by pumping water from aqueducts through the wall of their houses, whereas in Southeast Asia people huge wet grass mats over the windows to lower the temperature of the air inside. Modern air conditioning, which arrived in 1902, is the continuation of this rudimentary principle.

     

     Absorption chillers like carrier’s model above use the waste heat from gas turbine to cool building

DIGITAL ELECTRONIC COMPUTER(1941)

ZUSE BUILD THE ELECTROMACHINICAL COMPUER

     Zuse  is considered the inventor of the first digital, programmable computers accomplished in 1938, long before anyone else, anywhere in the world. Zuse was born in Deutsch-Wilmersdorf, Berlin, on 22 ,June, 1910.

   
     The two world war led to breakthroughs in all areas of science and technology .it was not, however, an easy time to get independently funded invention off the ground, as German civil engineer Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) discovered

   One of Zuse main motivation to create a computer was to make life easier for his fellow engineers and scientist. He had passionate distaste for performing the long time consuming calculation that his profession was often called upon to make. It was during the time that was studying as a civil engineer that he began to wish for a machine that would take care of these irksome problems for him.

  In 1936 Zuse invented the Z1, electromechanical binary computer, but it was completely obliterated world war II bombing that left no trace of it or its blueprints behind.Z1 was a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programmability, reading instructions from punched celluloid film.

  Work on the Z2 was difficult because the War Make it impossible for Zuse to work with other computer engineers from Britain or the United States, but he still managed to complete it in 1940. The Z3, a more sophisticated version of Z2, was finished in 1941, partially funded by contributions from the DVL (The German experimentation institution of aviation).  Although the original Z3 was destroyed, a working reconstruction was made 1960. It is on payment display the Deutsches Museum, Munich.It was first fully functional program controlled electromechanical digital computer in the world. Sadly this too was destroyed in the war, but greater care was taken with the Z4, which was moved country to country to ensure its survival

   Zuse inspect a replica of the Z1, his first computer, in the museum of transport and technology, Berlin 

PENICILLIN PRODUCTION (1941)

HEATLEY INITIATES THE MANUFACTURE OF PENICILIN

   Penicillin V potassium is an antibiotic used to treat certain infections caused by bacteria such as pneumonia, scarlet fever, and ear, skin. It also is used to prevent recurrent rheumatic fever and chorea. Antibiotics will not work for colds, flu, etc

  With World War II now underway, the group recognized penicillin’s enormous potential to treat war wounds. In 1941  Heatley traveled to the United States to start the commercial production of penicillin. Working with the team at northern regional research laboratory, Peoria, Illinois, he increased the yield of penicillin thirty-four times by adding a byproduct of cornstarch and lactose to the fermentation. by D-day in June 1944 enough penicillin available to allow unlimited treatment of allied troops.

   
In 1938, Howard Florey(1898-1968) and Ernst chain (1906-1979), two pathologists working at the university of oxford ,read a paper published nine years earlier about a substance called penicillin. its author, Alexander Fleming , recounted how spores of the mold Penicillium notatum had entered his bacterial culture dishes and killed some of the bacteria.  In 1945 Florey, chain and Fleming shared the noble prize .in his noble address Fleming presciently predicted the problem of antibiotic resistance, where bacteria would develop resistance to penicillin and the other antibiotic through their overuse.

  

   Florey and chain recognized the significance Fleming‘s observation and obtained the culture of the original mold. Initially they encountered difficulties in obtaining enough penicillin, but Norman Heatley(1911-2004), a biochemist on the team, devised ways of isolating penicillin without destroying it. Monitoring the extracted penicillin on mice infected penicillin survived, while untreated animal died.

     Alexander Fleming examining  petri dishes in his job at St.Mary’s  hospital, London, on December 18, 1943. 

MICROWAVE OVEN

SPENCER USHERS IN THE AGE OF NEAR INSTANTANEOUS COOKING

                          

         The microwave oven is an invention that arrived almost entirely by ancient. Its inventor, Percy Spencer (1894-1970), was an electronic whizz, working on designing radar equipment. He paused next to a “magnetron”, one of the Power Component of the machinery, and was amazed to discover that the chocolate bar in his packet and melted

it use radio waves at a specifically set frequency to agitate water molecules in food. As these water molecules get  agitated they begin to vibrate at the atomic level and generate heat. This heat produced is cooks food in the oven.

Understandably curious, he tried placing other object near magnetron. Some unpopped popcorn popped successfully (with Spencer standing further away, so as not to start cooking himself), and the next morning an egg was cooked, demonstrating for the first time that eggs in their Shells explode if cooked in microwave oven.

  

         Spencer realized the potential of the discovery and set about designing a more efficient food cooking device .he field for a patent in 1945, and by late 1946 a prototype device was being tested in Boston, Massachusetts, restaurant, and soon commercial models become available. these early models were not received well by consumer ,possibly they were over 6 feet (1.8 m)tall , cost $ 5,000, and required special plumbing to cool magnetron apparatus .gradually ,however ,unit become more practical and affordable ,and become safe and reliable enough to be used by the average consumer .by 1975 , microwave sale were exceeding those of gas cooker.

            

        The microwave oven thus have its shortcoming, however .meat does not brown on the outside, and the quick cooking time means that food can end up cooked unevenly .despite these issue , many Peoples regard their microwave as indispensable .

A 1968 commercial microwave oven model HN 1102, by Philips, Eindhoven, Netherlands.

HELICOPTER(1939)

SIKORSKY SOLVES THE PROBLEM OF STABILIZING HELICOPTER TAKEN AND FLIGHT

Today there are more helicopters in military service than in civilian operation. The vision of city center “Vertiports “Speeding passenger to local airports and between nearby airport is still to be realized.

The first manned helicopter flight was achieved by the Frenchman Paul Cornu who lifted his twin rotor craft off the ground for twenty second in 1907 ; his machine unfortunately broke up on landing .in 1909 Igor Sikorsky (1889-1972) build two helicopter but these could lift very little more than their own weight. The first Practical helicopter was German FockeWulf FW 61, which flew in 1936 .by 1939 the British had build the two-seater  weir w.6,which was powered by a pair of rotors mounted independently, one on each side of the fuselage. The weir w.6’s prototype was the first helicopter in the world to carry three occupants.

Many control problem had to be solved the main one being unsymmetrical lift, which caused the craft to flip over on takeoff, and the fact that the body’s natural tendency was to spin in the opposite direction to the rotors .However, one big advance was the realization that charging the angle at which he rotor blades were set was much more effective for stabilizing the helicopter in flight than trying to change the rate at which the rotors rotated .

The real breakthrough came with Sikorsky’s VS-300 IN 1939.as well as the horizontal main rotors the prototype had two smaller tail rotors ,one ensuring the horizontal stability and other acting like a rudder and controlling the direction of flight. This was followed by in United States in 1945 by the highly successful mass produced bell 47

This VS-300 has only one tail rotors, but the prototype had a second, horizontal rotor mounted above it.  

CHLOROFORM ANESTHETIC(1847)

SIMPSON EASES THE PAIN OF CHILDBIRTH  

     

     Simpson‘s innovation brought down the wrath of church and the medical establishment .the bible taught the women should bring forth in pain , and doctors claimed  pain was a biological necessity . With such opposition, chloroform did not become widely established until 1853, when Queen Victoria used it for the delivery of her last child. The use of chloroform as anesthetic was finally abandoned in the early twentieth century when it was shown to be responsible for a number of fatal heart attacks.

     James Simpson (1811-1870), professor of obstetrics at university of Edinburgh, Scotland, was the first doctor to use chloroform in childbirth. He had become dissatisfied with the use of ether and set about finding an alternative, using himself and friends as guinea pigs. On November 4, 1847 the group tried chloroform tradition has it that Simpson’s wife, on bringing in Dinner found them all sleep under the table. Simpson immediately recognized the advantages of chloroform over ether; it was inflammable, lighter, and easier to administer. Within a week he had administer the chemical to over thirty labors.

“Doctor Snow gave that blessed chloroform and the effect was soothing, quieting, and delightful
                                     -Queen Victoria of United Kingdom

ELECTRIC CAR

DAVENPORT AND DAVIDSON TRY ELECTRICITY

Possibly in 1834, Robert Anderson of Scotland created the first electric carriage. The following year, a small electric car was built by team of professor Stratingh of Groningen, Holland and his assistant, Christopher  Becker  More practical electric vehicles were brought onto road both American Thomas davenport (1802-51) and Scotsman Robert Davidson (1804-1894) circa 1842. Both of these inventors introduced non rechargeable electric cells in electric car.

  The Parisian engineer Charles Jentaud fitted a carriage with electric motor in 1881. William Edward Ayrton  and john Perry, professor at London ‘s city and guilds institute ,began road trials with an electric tricycle in 1882; three years later battery driven electric cab serviced Brigton around 1900, internal combustion engines were only one of three competing technologies for propelling car. Steam engines were used, while electric vehicles were clean, quiet, and did not smell. In the United States, electric cabs dominated in major cities for several years.

  The electric vehicles did not fail because of limited range of batteries or their weight. Historian Michel Schiffer and other maintain, rather, that failed business strategies were more important. Thus, most motor car in twentieth century relied on internal combustion, except for niche application such as urban deliveries. At the end of the century, after several efforts from small manufacturers, general Motors made available an all electric vehicles called EV1from 1996-2003. In the late 1990’s Toyota and Honda introduced hybrid vehicles internal combustion engines and batteries.

One of the drawbacks of early electric car was that they needed constant recharging by hand

ROBOTS

ROBOTS

             

 

 

Walter creates the first electronic autonomous robot

    Created by united states-born neurophysiologist and invented Dr. William Grey Walter (1910-1977), the tortoise robots were remarkable in their ability to mimic lifelike behavior. These experimental robots incorporated sensor for light and touch, as well as motor for propulsion and steering, and a two-vacuum tube (valve) along “computer”

   Robots, in one guise or another, had been suggested as far as 1495, when Leonardo Da Vinci created his mechanical knight robot. However the first significant robot prototypes, build in 1948, were a pair of tortoise like robots named Elmer and Elsie.

    

   With the aid of simple circuitry, these electromechanical, three wheeled robots were capable of phototaxis (an automatic movement towards or away from light), could thus find their own way to a recharging station when they ran low on “food” a precursor of the technique used in popular Sony Aibo robot dogs some sixty year later. Using the combination of light travel and motor power setting four modes of operation were possible. This produced the variety of unique behavior pattern in tortoise. In one experiment, Dr. Walter placed a light on the front of a tortoise and watched as the robot considered itself in mirror.

  
   Because of their speculative, exploratory tendencies, Dr. Walter called his tortoise “Mechanical Speculatrix. “Designed to aid the study and testing of theories of behavior arising from the neutral interconnection, these small robots with reflexes were hugely influential in the birth and development of the science of cybernetics and robotics

A photoreceptor allowed the “tortoise“ to approach moderate light but made it avoid bright illumination