ARTIFICIAL LIVER(2001)

Matsumura invents a potential lifesaver for paatient with acute liver failure.

the cell based therapies for the treatment of patient with liver failure and metabolic liver disease was developed by the artificial liver and liver transplantation laboratory of Scott L. Nyberg. Dr. Nyberg is a biomedical engineer and a uniquely trained as a liver transplant surgeon.

People become quite exited about artificial hearts. But, when you think about it , the heart is basically a pump, the same kind of pump that people have been using for thousands of years. Described in this terms, it does not sound quite so advanced. By contrast, an artificial liver is a complex achievement.

Far from the one trick pony that the heart is ,the human liver has to undertake many tasks simultaneously. Among other function, it help to break down food into unable substances, detoxifies harmful chemicals, store energy in form of substance from glycogen, and manufactures any number of substance from bile to the proteins that make cuts stop bleeding. But how do you combine all those different function into artificial liver?

Numerous way have been tried to treat liver failure, from replacing the entire blood volume in a person's body with new blood to hemodialysis. All have met with little success. However, in 2001, Dr. Kenneth Matsumura and his team were among the first to produce functioning artificial livers. Matsumura and his team decided the best way to approach the problem was to take living liver cell and place them in sequence with a series of charcoal filters. The resulting device performed most of the activity that a normal liver would carry out because it was partially made of normal liver cell. It is mostly used as a bridge until a new liver is available for transplant rather than as a full replacement, but further result are promising.

British scientists have since created the first artificial liver tissue from stem cell,. In time it is hoped that it will provide whole organ for transplant. the artificial organ is a man made device that is integrated or implanted into a human interfacing with living tissue to replace the organ for the purpose of augmenting or duplicating a specific function or a group of related function so patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible. 

LASER CATARACT SURGERY(1988)

Bath devises a laser instruments to facilitates lens removal from the eye.

The removal of natural lens of the eye (also called "crystalline lens") that has developed on opacification, which refers to as a cataract is called cataract surgery. With low complication rate well over 90% of operation are successful in restoring useful vision. 

In nearly all circumstances, pointing a laser at your eye is a bad thing, but if you have cataracts it may just restore you sight. cataracts are a leading cause of blindness. The disorder occurs when the part of the eye that focuses light known, not surprisingly, as the lens turns cloudy, this is a process that occurs in almost all of us if we live long enough. Unfortunately, current there is no viable way to make a cloudy lens transparent again, and so ophthalmologists are forced to resort to other means to all alleviate the problem.

The current method of dealing with a cataract is to remove the lens of the eyes. One problem is taking out the lens in its entirety requires a rather large incision into the eye in order to remove it. Ophthalmologist have long felt that it was more appropriate to find a method to break up the lens, which allow them to remove it through a smaller incision. This process, known as emulsification of the lens, was at one time done simply by grinding up the lens, but this method was subsequently replaced by a tool that transmits ultrasonic waves and uses sound energy to break up the lens. The resulting fragments are then vacuum extracted from eye.

All this may change with a tool invented by Dr. Patricia Bath .Dr. Bath postulated that lasers could be used to emulsify the lens of the eye as well, and she developed a model for a laser instrument to be used in removing cataracts. She received a patent for his invention in 1988. After much trial and error it turns out that Dr. Bath is correct, and her system may yet benefit cataract patients everywhere.

The sign of complication following cataract surgery are decreasing vision, increasing pain, increasing redness, swelling around the eye, discharge from the eye, new floaters, flashes of light, or changes in your field of vision.

CAMCORDER(1983)

SONY RELEASES THE FIRST HAND HELD VIDEO RECORDER.

The electronic device originally combining a video camera and video cassette recorder is called camcorder. camcorder also known as video camera or video recorder which become popular in early 1980's. the earliest camcorder were tape based recording analog signal onto video onto video cassette. 

   

Today mobile video recording technology must fit into palm of the hand, or be integrated into the back of a mobile phone, before anyone would consider paying any money for it. But before the camcorder was invented, anyone waiting to capture moving footage on film had to use an incredibly unwieldy two part machine. Worst still, the camera itself was all that one person could reasonably carry, so a partner had to be persuaded to carry the video cassette recorder(VCR) alongside.

The older equipment also had no playback screen, so whenever it was necessary to watch recently recorded material, a television screen had to be available nearby in which to plug the VCR

The cumbersome equipment was troublesome , particularly for broadcast journalists, student, movie maker and other working in the field. However, advance in technology and design meant that soon various pioneers of video recording equipment were shrinking down the basic component parts and creating a one piece camera/recorder combination what is now known as the camcorder.

The first commercially available camcorder was designed by Sony in Japan . making use of Betamax video, technology , the beta movie model was unleashed upon the general public in May 1983. Even then there were no playback functions on the camera, and anyone wanting to watch or rewind a section of footage still had to eject the tape and insert it into a home Betamax player and watch it on a separate television screen. Really, though , the roving reports  lot had improved immeasurably.

A camcorder is a portable electronic recording device used for recording live motion video and audio for later playback

LAPTOP/NOTEBOOK COMPUTER(1983)

COMPAQ RELEASES THE FIRST COMMERCIALLY SUCCESSFUL LAPTOP

Portable and compact personal computer with the same capability of desktop computer is called laptop. Today's laptop computer has evolved over decades from different type of portable computers , but the Compaq was the most successful early model. the laptop often called "notebook" or "notebook computer"

Alan Kay of the xerox corporation proposed the Dynabook concept in 1971. His idea was to create a portable, networked personal computer. However, at the time there was no market for it so the idea was shelved. In 1981 Alan Osborne of the Osborne computer corporation invented the Osborne 1, the first fully portable computer. The size of a small suitcase , it weighted about 24 pounds (11 kg)

The first clamshell design was the GRiD compass 1101, invented by bill Moggride and released what is considered to be the first true "laptop" computer in 1983; it was the smallest and lightest portable computer to date.

However, it was Compaq computer corporation that stole the market from these rivals in 1983, with the Compaq portable. Rod Canion, Jim Harris, and bill Murti founded Compaq in 1982 after leaving Texas instruments. The idea for the Compaq portable was supposedly sketched out on a placement from a Houston pie shop. The computer was "reverse engineered" using IBM BIOS source code to create a new version of a system that operated like IBM's. This was important considering IBM's huge success in the computer market during this time.

Compaq enjoyed record breaking revenue in 1983, the year it first released the portable. Following the model's  success in the market , laptops have evolved even further, developing into the smaller and faster models of today. The standard laptop combines the input, output, component, and capability of the desktop computer including the display screen, a keyboard, small speaker, hard disk drive, optical disc drive pointing devices (such as touchpad or trackpad ), a processor, and memory into a single unit.  

Reusable spacecraft(1981)

NASA DEPLOYS THE FIRST SPACE SHUTTLE , DESIGNED TO MAKE MULTIPLE TRIPS FROM EARTH.

The worlds first reusable spacecraft was NASA's space shuttle which is designed like a rocket and return to earth like a glider. it was used to carry large payloads like satellites into orbit and bring back for repair, if necessary.

  

Booster rockets such as the Saturn V that launched the Apollo astronauts towards the moon are extremely wasteful. They can fly only once, part are thrown away after use, and 97 percent of the mass is consumed in the first few minutes . clearly, what  was really needed for advanced and economic space exploitation was a spacecraft that could take off and return, to be reused time after time.

In 1972 NASA in the united states decided to build the space shuttle. Rocket were to be used to assist the launch. Crew facilities were to be provided for up to eight people, and the huge cargo bay would be used to take satellites and sections of the international space station (ISS) into orbit out.

The space shuttle would glide back to earth through the atmosphere, the nosecap and under wing tiles reaching temperature of 2,600°F (1,430°c) as it came in. The craft would then land on a normal runway. Columbia, the first shuttle, blasted off on April 12, 1981. Challenger, discovery, Atlantis and endeavor followed. Everything went fine until the twenty fifth flight, in January 1986. One of the solid rockets boosters blew up, leading to the death of the challenger crew.

The Russian shuttle, Buran, had a test flight in 1988 but was soon abandoned. In January 2003 the U.S. craft Columbia broke up during re entry. After a hiatus of two and a half years, the U.S.launches were restarted. Six were planned for 2008, in an attempt to finish the construction of the ISS.

No U.S. space shuttle launches are scheduled beyond 2010. Even through discovery has made thirty trips, the cost and the long turnaround time have never been satisfactory. The another reusable launch system that has been proposed is called combination launch system.

Musical instrument digital interface(1981)

Smith suggest a common language for all electronic musical instrument.

The is a protocol designed for recording and playing back music on digital synthesizer that is supported by many makes of personal sound cards is called MIDI. It was quickly adopted for the personal computer and originally intended to control one keyboard from another. During the early 1970, sounds generated by the electronic synthesizer become increasingly popular in recordings and at rock concerts. Gradually, these once prohibitively expensive musical instruments become common place and affordable. In addition to a great variety of user friendly electronic keyboard on offer, there were related devices, such as sequencers that could trigger sounds from a connected keyboards, as well as drum machines with a variety of sounds.

One problem that arose with this electronic proliferation was that devices produced by different manufactures tended not to be  compatible with each other. American audio engineer Dave smith sought a way forward when, at a 1981 meeting of the audio engineering society ,he presented the universal communication standard for musical equipment. He called MIDI an acronym musical instrument digital interface. In essence, MIDI is a digital language that enables synthesizers, MIDI recorder( whether hardware sequences or computer based software ), drum machine, and other similarly equipped device to talk to one another by sending and receiving message via interconnecting MIDI cables. The simplest use of MIDI would be two synthesizer connected in such as a way to enable the sound if both instruments to be played and controlled from just one of the keyboard.

Smith's paper was immediately adopted by manufacturer. Indeed, it would be  no exaggeration to suggest that without MIDI most of the programmed and sampled electronic music of the past twenty five year simply could not have been made. Devices with extra futures including instrumental selection transport control and also including rhythm input are sometimes called keyboard controllers. 

Personal computer modem(1981)

Hayes simplifies the link between computer and the telephone system.

The devices which act as a automatic translator, altering the digitally stored information of a computer to analog tones transmittable over phone lines and, in parallel fashion, the incoming telephonic information to digital pulse for the computer is called modem. 

The first modems date back to the cold war and 1958, when the North American defense transmitted data over telephone wires to hundreds of radar station in the united states and in Canada . a modem has one essential function, which is to transfer the digital languages of computer into the analog language of the telephonic system and back again.

In 1981 Dennis Hayes launched the smart modem (originally named the Hayes stack smart modem). This was an automatic modem that for a time led the rapidly emerging personal computer market . earlier modems were not adaptable to a variety of computers, were expensive to produce, and variety of computer, were expensive to produce, and also were cumbersome to operate, requiring manual connection to telephone lines.

The brilliance of the smart modem lay in its ability to "think for itself" and programs inself into the telephone network . it did this by using its own data language to instruct itself to engage and disengage with other computers phone line according to the requirement of it's own operator. It also opened the way to cheaper and smaller design because, needing only data instructions from it's host computer it could be connected up to any computer by an easily accessible port.

By 1985 Hayes's company held nearly half the personal computer market and the them "Hayes compatible " had entered the language of computer as a benchmark against which to measure rival modems. The term was used to describe any modem that could claim to recognize the command sequence devised for Hayes smart modem.

The difference between the router and the modem is that the router is a small box that allow multiple computer to join the same network, whereas modem is the device that provide access to the internet

Air car(1979)

Miller develops a compressed air vehicles.

The compressed air car is a compressed air vehicle which uses a motor powered by compressed air.

In 1979, American terry miller showed that it was possible for a car to run on compressed air alone. After developing his air car one, which he build for $1,500 miller patented his method in 1983

Instead of burning fuel to drive piston with hot expanding gas, air cars used the expansion of compressed air to drive the piston. Initially energy is involved in compressing the air, and this is usually done with electricity , but it is still a more environmental friendly process than that of gasoline cars. Many companies are developing air car, though they are yet to be released for the public this is likely to happen in the very near future.

There are few drawbacks that the air cars must overcome before it hits the market big time. When air expands from its compressed state, the engine is cooled and this can be encourage icing. Also, in the event of an accident, the compressed air tanks are liable to explode. However, the air car certainly has advantages over gasoline powered cars and other designs for  the future, not least of which that it 20 percent less than a current car. Without a combustion engine the wear and tear on internal parts is minimal and, with zero harmful emission, the air car is an attractive design for the next step in car manufacturing.

Even with its low maintenance cost, the air car is arguably still the underdog in the race for next generation of car. Fuel cell and hydrogen based models, as well as various hybrid designs, are ahead in the running, but as none of these have hit the commercial market yet, the top design for the future of the car is still to be decided. Air car is one which is finally moved from dream to reality.

Tissue engineering (1987)

Vacanti and longer grow cell tissue.

The uses of combination of cells, suitable biochemical and physicochemical factor, engineering and material method to improve or replace biological tissues is called tissue engineering

Dr. W.T.green, a pediatric orthopedist at children's hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, made one of the first attempts at tissue engineering. He tried to grow cartilage in laboratory mice. Although unsuccessful, his work set the stage for later attempts by suggesting that, once suitable material were invented, cell would grow on configured scaffolds.

Joseph Vacanti, a transplant surgeon, and Robert Langer, an engineered biosynthetic, biodegradable scaffold in 1987. The scaffolds they developed provided access to nutrients as well as waste removal for the growing cells. The final structure can resemble a natural organ.

A famous development was the "auriculosaurus", a mouse with a human shaped ear growing on its back. The " ear" was a biodegradable scaffold seeded with bovine cartilage cells. The mouse was a nude animal specifically bred not to reject foreign protein. The auriculosaurus, filmed, back a BBC video crew, became the image of tissue engineering worldwide

In 1998 a factory workers was presented to the university of Massachusetts medical center after the last bone in his thumb was  ripped off in machinery, leaving just the flesh. Vacanti ground a piece of coral into the shape of the missing bone. The coral was than seeded with bone cells, and eventually implanted. As the coral dissolved, the bone displaced the structure.

These two example were grown inside organisms. Engineered tissue is more commonly grown in bioreactor vessels designed to provide nutrients and remove waste more efficiently that could be done in a petri dish.Regenerative medicine is a board field thet include tissue engineering. it is used to recreate cell and rebuild tissues and organs.

Regenerative medicine is a broad field that includes tissue engineering but also incorporates research on self-healing – where the body uses its own systems, sometimes with help foreign biological material to recreate cells and rebuild tissuesand organs.

JET ENGINE

WHITTLE AND VON OHAIN SPEED UP AIR TRAVEL FOR BOTH THE PUBLIC AND MILITARY.

The turbojet engine is an air breathing jet engine which is usually used in aircraft. it consist of turbine with propelling nozzles. the gas turbine has a compressor, a turbine (which is used to drive the compressor), an inlet, and a combustion chamber.

A jet engine uses a fan to suck air into a cylindrical chamber and the second turbine fan to compress it. Then fuel is mixed with this high pressure air and ignited. The hot expanding burning gases then blast out of a nozzle at the rear if the engine thrusting the engine forward, And the aircraft it is usually attached to, with great force.

The independent co inventor were English aviation engineer Sir frank whittle and the German airplane designer Dr. Han von Ohain  (1911-1998). Ohain's engine was tested in the Heinkel He178, flying first in 27 August , 1939. Whittle's first engine, the whittle unit (WU), was completed in 1937 and subsequently fitted to an aircraft called the pioneer (E.28/39), build by the gloster aircraft company. The first flight was on May 15, 1941.

World war II saw swift development of the jet engine and airplane. In united states bell XP-59 flew in September 1942, and by 1944 both the Messerschmitt Me 262 and the Gloster meteor were being mass production. Jet to jet dogfight were taking place during the Korean war in 1950. By 1952 BOAC were using the de Havilland comet jetliner on their London to johannesburg route

Jet engine work most effectively at altitude of between 6 and 9 miles (10 to 15 km). Here modern aircraft have cruising speed of between 420 and 580 miles (680 and 900) per hour, this being about 80 percent the ambient speed and sound. Propeller powered aircraft have to fly at much altitude and fly much more slowly. Also propeller engine are much more costly to manufacture and maintain.

The compressor component are made from titanium and the combuster component are made of a nickel super alloy such as Inconel 625

Turbopro engine(1937)

JENDRASSIK DESIGNS SUITABLE ENGINES FOR SLOWER MOVING AIRCRAFT.

Turboprop engine is used to drive the aircraft propeller. there are two main parts of a tuebopro propulsion system, the core engine and the propeller.

In 1937, Hungarian engineer Gyorgy Jendrassik(1898-1954), designed and constructed a small turboprop engine. A year later he completed the larger "CS-1" engine, intending to use it on military bomber, the RMI-1 . unfortunately ,the CS-1 ran into combustion problems, keeping it from reaching its projected 1,000 horse power. The RMI was annihilated in an air raid by the united states.

In spite of its turbulent birth the turboprop engine enjoyed subsequent success . it is primarily distinguished by its namesake, the turbine driven propeller at the front. Whereas turbojet and turbofan engine generate thrust only at their rears, the trust of the turboprop engine is generated mostly by the propeller.

The turboprop engine produce motion like any gas turbine engine. Air enters the engine and is compressed by a spinning, blade covered cone called an axial compressor. Axial compressor pulls the air into a progressively smaller tube until it reaches a combustion area, where fuel injector combine fuel and high pressure air to create a powerful explosion that pushes exhaust leaves, it spins a turbine that rapidly rotates a drive shaft. The rotating drive shaft is then used to spin a gearbox, which in turn power the planes propeller.

Turboprop engine are most efficient at speeds below 500 miles(800 km) per hour and so are usually used in smaller, slower moving aircraft that land and take off frequently. In order to increase efficiency at higher speeds, many modern turboprop engine now use smaller and more numerous 

blades.

for short distance the turboprop are more fuel efficient then jets. on the longer flight the jet engine win the race

Ballistic missile(1938)

DORNBERGER INITIATES NAZI GERMANY'S ROCKET PROGRAM.

Missile are self guided munitions that travel through the air or other space to their targets.a intercontinental ballistic missile can travel a substantial around the earth to its target. the ballistic missile travels along suborbital trajectory.

The history of rocketry dates back to around 900 but the use of rockets as highly destructive missiles able to carry large payloads of explosives was not feasible until the late 1930 . war has been the catalyst for many invention, both benevolent and destructive. The ballistic missile is intriguing because it can be both of these things it has made possible some of the greatest deeds mankind has ever achieved, and also some of the worst.

German Walter Dornberger (1895-1980) and his team began devolving rockets in 1938, but it was not until 1944 that the first ballistic missile, the Aggregat-4 or V-2 rockets, was ready for use. V-2 were used extensively by the Nazis at the end if world war II, primarily as a terror weapon against  civilian target. They were powerful and imposing 46 feet (14 m) long, able to reach speeds of around 3,500 miles per hour (5,600 kph) and deliver a warhead of around 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) at a range of 200 miles (320 kg)

Ballistic missile follow a ballistic flight path, determined by the brief internal powered phase of the missiles flight. This is unlike guided missiles, such as cruise missiles, which are essentially unmanned airplane packed with explosives. This meant that the early V-2 s flew inaccurately, so they were of most use in attacking large, city sized targets such as London, Paris, and Antwerp.

The Nazi ballistic missile program has had both a great and a terrible legacy. Ballistic missile such as the V-2 were scaled up to produce intercontinental ballistic missile with a verity of warheads, but also the craft that have carried people into space. Ballistic May have led us to the point of self destruction, but without them man would have never been able to venture beyond our atmosphere.

An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile that a minimum range of 5,500 km (3,400 mi) primarily designed for nuclear weapon delivery  

WALKIE-TALKIE (1938)

GROSS INTRODUCE THE HAND HELD TWO WAY RADIO.

A walkie talkie is a small portable radio through we can talk into and hear messages 

Walkie-talkie are the portable tow way radios that paved the way for mobile phones by showing the public the joy of talking to faraway people while walking around. In the world war II they allowed troops to communicate and, since then, the police, the coast guards, and even children playing games have used to relay information.

Their exact origins are rather hazy, though. Once radios had been invented, the next big thing was making them smaller and more portable and there is much disagreement over exactly when a two way radio became Walkie-talkie

In 1937 a man called Din Hings, born in England and raised in Canada, build a waterproof two way field radio. This radio weighed almost 12 pounds (5.5 kg) and was about the size of a toaster, but was definitely portable enough to count. Things radio was build for air crashes, so that survivor could guide in rescuers by transmitting to the manufacturer or the Canadian signal corps. Before this radio, most were portable only if someone carried it while another used it but hings could be carried and operated by one person.

Engineer Alfred j gross (1918-2000) made his own lighter, smaller version in 1938 while a still a teenager. His designs caught the attention of the U.S office of strategic services (now the CIA), who recruited him to design their radios. Gross's designs went on to play a large role in world war II and soon entered civilian use.

It was gross designs of wrist radio that found their way into Chester Gould's sick Tracy comics, but it was walkie talkies in general that have led to many development since.

a walkie talkie is a combined transmitter and receiver that is very light enough to carried by a person it is used in world war II. The main draw back of walkie talkie is that same frequency channel used for both the thing so only one person can talk at a time

DIGITAL CAMERA(1975)

SASSON ELIMINATES THE NEED FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS.

The camera which produce a digital image which can be stored in computer and display on screen.

They are so commonplace today that many people even added them to digital watches.
Digital cameras are now taken for granted, but it was only in 1975 that the first prototype was produced.

Steve Sasson had recently graduated in electrical engineering before taking a job with Kodak. His assignment was a broad one: was it possible to make a camera using solid state electronic? Starting from scratch, he gathered together various piece of electronic equipment including movie camera lens, an analog to digital converter, and, most importantly, charge coupled devices(CCDs).

By December 1975 Sassons rough prototype was ready for initial testing. Weighing in at 8 pounds(3.6 kg) and size of a toaster, camera was hardly portable, but Sasson convinced a lab assistant to pose for a test shot. It took twenty three seconds for the images to be recorded onto a cassette and then an additional twenty three seconds to be read from the tape before appearing on a television screen.

Over the next year, Sasson and his colleagues presented his invention to Kodak officials. The response, however, was often less than encouraging. The employees of a company best known for making camera film were understandably perplexed at the notion of a camera that required no film. Why would anyone want to view their photos on a television? How could you store these digital image? Ultimately, the rapid increase in computer capabilities would solve these issue, but it was still many years before digital camera started to replace traditional film

digital camera stores pictures stores in a electronic memory instead of film.it use a image sensor instead of photographic film.the digital camera hold more pictures than traditional camera. the digital camera can sometimes hold hundred and thousands of images

DIGITAL AUDIOTAPE(DAT)(1975)

STOCKHAM'S SOUND STREAMS, INC.,LEADS THE WAY IN AN ALTERNATIVE RECORDING SYSTEM.

Digital  tape format is a magnetic tape data storage format developed bu Sony. the cassette consist of two real with a helical scan process

Until the 1980 s, most commercial audio recording were made according to analog principles, with the original sound modulated onto another medium, the physical characteristics of which are directly related to the original sound. In contrast, digital recording sees the original sounds converted to digital information and stored as a series of 1s and 0s known as "bits"

Although the principles of digital digital recording were already in place in the late 1930, it was not until 1975 that a usable commercial system was developed, when Dr. Thomas Stockham (1933-2004) established sound stream, Inc., the first dedicated digital recording company. The original audio was passed through an analog digital converter (ADC), converted to 16-bit audio, and stored on a 1 inch(2.54 cm) Honeywell tape deck. To play back the sound, the digital analog converter(DAC). The system offered the highest quality sound without any of the problems a analog recording. Mechanical deficiencies comanly associated with analog equipment were radically improved.

Competing systems, such as those produced by 3M, Sony, and JVC appeared in quick succession, but for the rest of decades it was stockhams system that dominated. From the early 1980 s, the Sony DASH and Mitsubishi ProDigi formats rendered previous systems obsolete. At the same time Sony's DAT cassette format become the de facto standard for making digital stereo recording. All of these format remained in use until the early 1990 s, after which hard disk recording began its gradual domination.

DAT is a standard medium technology for the digital recording of audio on tape at professional level of quality

Microprocessor(1971)

HOFF'S INVENTION BRING COMPUTER TO MASSES.

An integrated circuits that contain all  the function of a central processing unit of a computer is called microprocessor. it is cheap and small in size and easy to use

At the end of the 1960s, Intels Ted Hoff was asked to design several different calculator for a Japanese client. The traditional way would have been to develop several different integrated circuits silicons   chips to do the work. Even though these were small enough to be put into handheld calculator, programmable computer, which could do a variety of jobs, were still huge device.

Combining the small size integrated circuit with a power of programmable computer was an inevitable idea. Hoff decided that he would make a single integrated circuit that could be programmed to do many different things. Joined by fellow engineers Stan Mazor and Federico Faggin , Hoff squeezed an entire computer onto a single silicon chips, pairing it with a small memory to give it its instruction .his range of calculator all used the same chip, but each one had different instructions to instruct it how to behave.

Intel quickly realized that they had, quite literally in the palms of their hands, a programmable, general purpose computer with the power of machines that a decade before had taken up entire rooms. Making a deal with the calculator manufacture, Intel kept the right to sell the chip to other people and released the Intel 4004 processor in 1971.

The 4004, the first commercial microprocessor, was also the first step in the revolution that would sweep the world during the 1970s and 1980s, taking computer from their air conditioned industrial servitude and bringing them to homes, car, and even washing machine.

the controllers based on microprocessor are available in home appliance, such as microwave oven, washing machine etc.it is also used in controlling various parameter like speed, temperature, pressure. these are used with suitable transduction. 

E mail (1971)

TOMLINSON DEVELOPS A PROGRAM ALLOWING COMMUNICATION BETWEEN COMPUTER NETWORK.

Messages that distributed by electronic means from one computer to one or more computer via network. more plainly email is a message that may contain text, images, or other attachment sent through a network to a specified individual or group of individual is called e mail.

In 1969 a company called bolt Barenek and Newman won the contract to develop a communication network called ARPANET that would enable scientists and researchers to use each others computer facilities. During it's development, an engineer named Ray Tomlinson started to experiment with the coding of two program. SNDMSG allowed members of same network to exchange message among one another, whereas CPYNET allowed file transfer to occur between two separate network. It occurred to Tomlinson that by combining the two he could create a system that would make message transfer possible between different user of independent network.

One of most significant decision by Tomlinson was his choice of the symbol to separates the users name from the host network name. It was a fairly logical choice, but one that revived the rather esoteric symbol and saved it from the brink of linguistic extinction.

Unaware of the global significance that the 200 lines of code that made up the email program would have, tomlinson neglected to note what he wrote in the first ever sent (he claims it was something banal like "QWERTYUIOP" or "TESTING  1 2 3 4").

Allegedly, when Tomlinson first demonstrated his program to coworker , latter told him not to show the system to anyone because it was not part of their job description . Tomlinson has since said that even though there was no direct stated objective to create email, the ARPANET project was in fact a giant and worthwhile investigation into the multifarious uses of computer communication

some people use internet based application and some use program on their computer to access and store the email

INTERNET(1969)

ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA) DEVELOPS THE FIRST COMPUTER NETWORK.

A Global computer network providing a variety of communication facilities and information consisting of interconnected network using standardized communication protocols. 

In 1963, the advanced research project agency unit, set up by the U.S defense department, began to build a computer network. Driven by fear of the soviet nuclear threat, it aimed to link computer at different location, so researchers could share data electronically without having fixed route between them, making the system less vulnerable to attack even nuclear ones.

Data was converted into telephone signals using modem, developed at AT&T, in the late 1950s. In the 1960s, key advance were made including "packet switching " the system of packaging, labeling, and routing data that enable it to be delivered across the network, between machines. Paul Baran  proposed this system, which broke each message down into tiny chunks. These would be fired into the network, which would then route the various pieces to the desired destination . so, if chunks of a message were travelling from Seattle to New York via Dallas, but Dallas suddenly went offline, the network would automatically route via Denver instead. Different parts or "packets" of a message would go by different route , before being reassemble back into original message at their destination, even if they arrived in wrong order. Baran published his concept in 1964, and five years later the new network called ARPANET went live.

As the threat of nuclear war receded in the early 1970s, ARPANET was renamed the internet and effectively opened to all users. Since then, the development of email, the creation of the world wide web, and browser technology has enabled the internet to become a rich communication facility.

the internet sometimes called "the net" change the life style of human beings. we can gather any information at any place at any time using internet

BALLOON CATHETER(1969)

FOGARTY INVENTS A NONINVASIVE CLOT BUSTING DEVICE.

A type of catheter incorporating a small ballon which may be introduced into a, duct, canal, blood vessel and inflated in order to clear an obstruction or dilate a narrowed region.

Thomas Fogarty was working as a scrub technician at the good Samaritan hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio, when he noticed the difficulty surgeon had in removing blood clot that formed in arteries and veins. The operation which often took nine to twelve hours to perform, necessitated opening up the entire length of the vessels and often resulted in the patient dying or having their limb amputated.

Fogarty devised a scheme that could be used to overcome the need for invasive surgery. It involved using a urethral catheter, which is flexible and strong enough to be pushed through a blood vessels and penetrate the blood clot.

Working in his, fogarty had the further inspiration to use the fly tying skill he had learned as a fisherman to attach "fingertip" of a latex glove to the catheter, which could then be inflated with saline once it was past the clot. The idea is that the balloon expands to the size of the artery and is then pulled back out, bringing the clot with it.

In 1961, fogarty's balloon Embolectomy catheter named for the clot removal procedure was used for a first time on a human patient. A small incision was made, and the catheter was threaded up through the patients blocked artery. When inflated and pulled back out, it did indeed bring the clot out with it.

Today fogarrtys balloon catheter is the still most widely used technique for blood clot removal. The technology has also been extended for use in angioplasty, where balloon are inflated to widen narrowing in the heart arteries that cause symptoms of angina.

renal denervation, cryoablation, balloon sinuplasty,TAVI (Transcatheter aortic valve implantation), drug delivery, stent delivery, balloon occlusion which are the common application for balloon catheters.

Far ultraviolet camera (1969)

CARRUTHERS ENABLES OBSERVATION OF TGE STARS.

Spectrograph or the the far ultraviolet camera was one of the experiments deployed on the lunar surface by the Apollo 16 Astronauts. it is used to obtain astronomical images and spectra in far ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

ultraviolet light is found beyond the violet end of our visible spectrum of light, toward the X Ray. It is given off by the sun and is harmful to living things, which is why we need to wear sunscreen when we go out in the sun. Fortunately for us, most of it is absorbed by earths atmosphere. 

Ultraviolet light from place other than sun can tell us a great deal about the universe specifically about stars that are between twice and ten times the temperature of the sun. Because earths atmosphere gets in the way, astronomers find it hard to see them. By the mid 1960, however, human were journeying beyond earths atmosphere  

Normal camera pick up only light around the visible spectrum, but on November 11, 1969, astrophysicist Dr. George Carruthers was a granted a patent for an "image converter for detecting electromagnetic radiation especially in short wave lengths". the far ultraviolet camera was a 3 inch(7.62 cm),48.5 pounds, gold plated apparatus that could see stars that are a hundred times fainter than those that can be seen with the human eye. The camera was sent up with Apollo 16 mission in 1972 and placed on The moons surface, allowing researchers to examine earths atmosphere for concentration of pollutants. In record nearly 200 images, giving astronomers data on over 550 stars, nebulae, and galaxies, as well as providing new views of earth. The camera looked into the ionosphere the highest part of our atmosphere and gave us some of our earliest solid data on the concentration of man made pollutants. carruthers was awarded national metal of technology and innovation the nations highest honor for technology acheivement.

CELLULAR MOBILE PHONE(1970)

JOEL OPENS UP A PORTABLE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.

A cellular mobile phone is a telecommunication devices which uses radio waves over a cell (networked area). it is served through a cell site or base station at a fixed location, enabling the calls to transmit wirelessly over a wide range to fixed the landline or via internet, In 1970, when he was working as an electrical engineer at Bell labs, in Murray hill, New jersey, Amos Joel came up with an idea that worked so well that many of us it today without noticing that anything has happened at all. Joel had invented the idea of the cellular mobile phone.

Cell phone existed prior to 1970, but they had problem. Since each call was made on a single
channel, the number of simultaneous call was limited to the number of available channels. additionally the cell phone could not leave the base station area of coverage in which  the call was initiated or the connection to net work would be lost.

Joel's cellular mobile phone communication system proposed providing phone services to a geographic area by dividing up into many small, low powered base station or "cells." This network of the cell deal a greater number of simultaneous call by allocating a radio channels to a call in one cell and reusing the same radio channel in a number of other cells separated by enough distance to prevent interference. When a user traveled from the service area of one cell to another, the user 's phone call would not be disrupted as each cell would "hand off" to the other, switching cellular base station and radio channels without anyone noticing.

The key ingredient? A microprocessor that could make all the decision, find cellular base station, identify the phone , and control the connection as user moved through the network. Today's cell phone supports a number of additional services ,such as access to internet, messaging, and camera. mobile phone connected to a terrestrial cellular network of base station whereas the satellite phone connected to orbiting satellite.

DIGITAL WATCH(1970)

HAMILTON WATCH COMPANY DEVELOPS A SPACE AGE TIMEPIECE.

The digital watch is one in which the time is displayed as a series of digital. In watch or quartz clock the battery sends electricity to quartz crystal through an electronic circuit. quartz crystal  at a precise frequency: exactly 32768 times each second.the digital and analog signals are used to transmit using electric signals.in an analog technology information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude.

The first wrist time piece to tell the time digitally was the Hamilton watch company "pulsar". This 18 carat gold cased device used a Red LED display to the the user what time it was In clean, crisp, twentieth century digital at the push of a simple button and retailed for a cool $2,100. Teething the problem meant the pulsar did not become commercial available until 1972, but when it was released, it caused many to think that the end had come for conventional dial face watches with mechanical movements. Hamilton claimed that their inspiration for developing a digital  watches was the futuristic digital clock that they had created for the  1968 film 2001: a space odyssey.

The only problem with the pulsar was the hefty accompanying price tag although many would argue that $2100 was cheap for the opportunity to look like James bond wearing a swanky gold digital watch. The answer for those who dud not want to pay so much for a watch canes from Texas instruments, who introduced the plastic strapped version that retailed  for just $20 in 1975 and soon after dropped to $10. This spelled the end for Hamilton and led to them becoming a  subsidiary of Seiko.

Development in digital watches continued the next three decade and included the use of liquid crystal displays to replace light emitting diode in  early 1970s . light emitting diode which could not always be left on due to their high level of power consumption. Through out the 1980 many amazing innovation were incorporated into digital display, including calculator, thermometer, language translators, and even miniature television.

some quartz watches are watches are designed to have extended battery life which can last up to 3 or more years. most of these watches do not have second hands. 

X RAY TELESCOPE(1978)

NASA Launches a super sensitive, orbiting telescope

The earth atmosphere is opaque to x ray spectrum so that x rays telescopes must be mounted on high altitude rockets, artificial satellite or balloons. XRT is designed to observe object in the X rays spectrum

X rays absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere so one has to climb above the atmosphere to see them. NASA’s Uhuru (1970) and the united kingdom’s Ariel V (1974) were spin stabilized satellite that discovered around 400 bright sources .astronomers realized that X ray provide vital clues to the detail throws of stars, specifically supernova explosions and the final transition to white dwarf, neutron star, and black hole states. X rays are a vital component of the radiation coming from energetic such as solar flares.

Ultraviolet telescopes study very hot stars and optical telescope study the visible light from space. because these rays (such as X rays, gamma rays, infrared, most ultraviolet) blocked by the outer atmosphere these type of light can only study from space

Two technical advances helped the development of space telescope. One was the construction of advanced Confocal mirror system and the other was the development of two dimensional X ray images gas scintillation proportional counters. Using these United States launched the first orbiting satellite containing a fully imaging X rays telescope, the high energy astrophysical observatory 2 (HEAO-2), In November 1978.

HEAO-2 was renamed “Einstein” when it was in orbit and operating correctly. Einstein discovered that nearly all astronomical bodies emit       X rays. Also the angular resolution and the sensitivity were such that accurate maps could be made of object such as the Cygnus loop supernova remnant. The Einstein instruments were a thousand times more sensitive than those on Uhuru.

Einstein remained operational until April 1981. Other space telescopes have followed, such as Exosat, Rosat, Chandra, and XXM Newton, and all have continued the quest or ever higher details and sensitive. In addition to new sources being discovered, it has been found that many X rays are being emitted as materials falls into the black holes at the center of active galactic nuclei.

    

PERSONAL STEREO(1977)

PAVEL PATENTS THE FIRST PORTABLE CASSETTE PLAYER.

A portable audio player, used with a light weight headphone or headset is called personal stereo. it is used to listen song while walking jogging and relaxing.

Given its market domination from the movement it first appeared in 1979, many people might imagine that the Sony Walkman was the original personal cassette player. Its iconic status is beyond question it all but created the vogue for listening music on the move and is direct antecedent of today’s ubiquitous iPod. And yet seven years earlier, a lone inventor with little expertise in the field of electronics came up with a concept that was almost identical.

The story begin Brazil in 1972 when a German born former TV executive named Andreas Pavel sought a way of listing a music while going about his everyday business. His idea was for a tiny portable cassette player not that much larger than the cassette itself that played back audio through a small pair of headphone. He called his novel idea the stereobelt, the first personal stereo

Having left brazil and move to Switzerland, Pavel made approaches to many of leading electronic manufactures, but none were interested in his idea they believed that few would be prepared to wear headphone in pubic in order to listen to music. Although Pavel failed to find a backer for his idea, his faith was unshaken and, during 1977, he filled parents for his invention across the globe.

One year later Sony launched their renowned Walkman to immediate acclaim Pavel set out on what turned out to be a marathon legal battle taking up most of the next twenty five years. It was eventually resolved in 2003, with an out of court settlement in which Sony is believed to have paid Pavel in excess of $10 million.

The first commercial personal stereo was Sony Walkman created by Akio Morita, Masaru Ibuka the co founder of Sony and Kozo Ohsone

INKJET PRINTER(1977)

Endo invents a new printing method.

Inkjet printer is a type of printer in which the letters are made with the help of ink. inkjet printing is type of computer printing that recreate the digital image. Most useful technological take time to mature; usually there are at least a couple of years between an idea’s conception and a final working model. When it comes to inkjet printing, however, it took much longer the patent for directing ink onto paper using electrostatic force was granted to Lord Kelvin in 1867.

Before the 1980s, printing from a computer was a slow, unrewarding task. The mechanisms behind those early printers used moving parts, bladders and pump that made them expensive, inefficient and clumsy. The modern inkjet was to change all this by using heat or electrostatic force to produce uniform droplets and precision results. In Japan in the 1970, canon and Hewlett Packard were competing with each other to produce the first reliable inkjet printer.

Hewlett Packard was beaten by a canon researcher named Ichiro Endo who invented the first thermal inkjet printer in 1977. He was inspired when he saw a syringe full of ink accidantly being touched with a hot soldering iron. The heat caused the ink to increase in volume and spurt out. Endo realized this was the solution to delivering controlled spurts of ink, and within the days he produced the working model that later became the canon bubble jet printer.

Both Hewlett Packard and canon put in patents within months of each other, and although there is much discussion about who invented what first. The two companies ended up sharing a lot of printing technologies with each other. The winner, with high quality cheaply produced printers available to all, was the home consumers. Now a day inkjet printers are used in any fields like in office, business, hospitals etc.

DVD(1995)

A CONSORTIUM UPGRADES VIDEO RECORDIN

DVDs short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. CD/DVD drives were sold in 1997 and are widely used for storing movies, songs and other data. After the futuristic looking compact disc (CD) took the audio market by storm consigning the humble cassette tape to the back of a billion cupboards it was only a matter of time before technological wizards set their sights on abolishing the VHS tape.

Although the technology for laser disc already existed, it never really took off in the way that CD technology did, and so the market for a compact digital video disc was still very much open.. the first proposals for a high density CD were put forward in 1993, leading to the creation of two competing format, electronic powerhouse Sony and Phillips led their collected investors forward with MMCD format, going head to head with industry giants Toshiba, Masushita and time Warner’s effect, the SD. Then, in 1995, a combined efforts known as the DVD was officially announced and consequently developed by a consortium of ten companies.

The DVD is a digital optical disc format which is capable of storing two hours of high quality digital video, eight track of digital audio, and thirty two tracks of subtitle information, as well as offering the practical benefits of being light weight, compact, easily rewindable, and durable. Dual layer DVDs later doubled this capacity, and two sides DVDs doubled it again without creating needless bulk.

Although DVDs is often cited as being acronym for digital video disc or digital versatile disc, the official line on it as stated in 1999 by the 250 company members in the DVD forum is that it is simply a three letter name. So, in short, DVD stands for DVD 

ATOMIC LASER(1996)

KETTERLE DEVELOPES A WORKING ATOM LASER.

There is no rigorous definition for the atom laser or (an optical laser, for the matter) all the people agree that coherence and brightness is the essential feature.

The idea of the atom laser has been around for many years, and its principle is based on the more conventional optical laser. Normal laser emits light, but, unlike a normal lamp, the laser light is “coherent,” so that it can focus to a pinpoint, and also travel a long distance without spreading out like a flashlight beam. By the time the optical laser was introduced in 1960, scientists were already familiar with the wavelike properties of matter, and the atom laser was under consideration as a theoretical possibility. The atomic laser is analogous to an optical laser. Instead of electromagnetic waves the atom laser emits matters waves

But it was not until 1997 that reports of the first rudimentary working model were released. A bizarre form of super cooled matter called Bose Einstein condensate made it all possible. This strange stuff, in which the individual atom “loss their identity” and coalesce into a single “blob,” is in some ways like the photons of light in a laser. It was Professor Wolfgang Ketterle and his colleagues who first managed to produce a Bose Einstein condensate in 1995.

Not long afterward, in November 1996, Ketterle and his team cheered as their atom laser worked for the first time. They had successfully used a Bose Einstein condensate as a source of coherent atom to create a “mater wave”. Described like a dripping faucet, it emitted pulses of droplets of atom, each containing up to several million atoms.

Practical use of the atom laser yet to materialize, and it is confined to research at present. However, it is likely that atom lasers will be used in the future to directly deposit atom onto computer chips, enabling the creation of much smaller, finer patterns and more powerful computer.

The atomic and molecular sample are cooled down to near absolute zero through the interaction with one or more laser field is called laser cooling   

SURFACE COMPUTING(2006)

MICROSOFT TAKES THE PERSONAL COMPUTER OFF TABLES- TO BECOME THE TABLE ITSELF

Microsoft has established the new branch computer with surface is known as surface computing. These computer interact with the users through ordinary object instead of using keyboard, monitors. 

In 2006 Microsoft announced a new way in which a human can interact with a computer. The mouse and the key board are thrown way and replace with the table top containing an embedded rear projection touch screen. Behind the screen, inside the table, are five cameras with overlapping fields of view. These can look through the screen and programmed to recognize or red items that are placed on the screen. These cameras can also recognize physical object, track hand gestures and the movements of the pens and brushes, and the read credit cards and “loyalty” cards.

The software supports a multitude of touch points so many people can use the computer at once. A single user can also multitask. For example, if the digital camera is paced on the computer table, the computer immediately recognize that is a camera, download the stored images, and shown them on the table top screen. Enlarging the image is done simply by touching two opposite corners of the images and moving the fingers apart. Dragging song into and out of the music player is done in similar operations. He aim is to replicate everyday intuitive manipulative interactions.

At the presence time the Microsoft surface is expensive and aimed at holes, public entertainment venues, stores, and restaurant, but soon people could be browsing through music and book lists and downloading specific items, playing video poker, and ordering beer and food. Computer game technology could be revolutionized by these devices, and they could also be used with a real brush and a virtual palette to paint computer pictures in real time.